The
Maxims of teaching
Maxims are general truth drawn from science
of experience. The knowledge of different maxims helps the teacher to proceed
systematically. The different maxims of teaching are:
1.
Known to Unknown:-
This maxim is based on the assumption that
the students know something. It is on this foundation that the new knowledge
has to be built up. In teaching in order to assess the strength of this
foundation the teacher has to check the previous knowledge of the students.
Only on a firm foundation the new knowledge has to be constructed. The gaps
will hinder learning. The teacher has to fill this gap first. The knowledge
about the new material creates interest in learners.
2.
Simple to Complex:-
The teacher should take care to present simple
tasks first and then to the complex tasks. The ability to do simple tasks
develops confidence in students and they are motivated to know about the
complex things. The simplicity or complexity of learning material has to be
determined by the teacher, by assessing her students.
3.
Concrete to Abstract:-
Concrete things are those solid things
which we can see and feel. But abstract things are only imaginative. The
students are likkely to forget them soon. Frobbel said, “Our lessons ought to
start in the concrete and end in the abstract.” A teacher must start with
concrete things and as the student develops the ability to imagine she can
gradually move on to the abstract.
4.
Particular to General:-
During teaching the teacher should take
specific examples of the matter to be taught and based on those particular
cases, generalisation has to be made. For example, if the teacher is teaching
past tense, she can give a lot of examples for past tense and based on them,
she can generalise that past tense is used to denote an action that took place
in the past.
Approaches in teaching English
Structural approach is also known as
structural situational approach, structural-oral-situational approach or
aural-oral approach. As Hornby, one of the reputed linguists, an author and
expounder in the field of structuralism says, “Structures are the devices that
we use to make signals, to convey meanings and indicate relationships.” Word
order, inflexion, inversion of subject and meanings and finite verb contrasts
of forms, stress and intonation, all these various items belong to structures.
In Hornby's terms “the situational approach is a very influential and novel one
in structural approach.”
Main principles of SOS
1.
Language is a system of
structurally related elements like phonemes, morphemes, words, structures and
sentence types. The students are to master these elements to learn language.
2.
Student's activity is of much
greater importance than the teacher's.
3.
Speech and formation of
language habits are more important.
4.
The student's effort should be
to replace sentence patterns of the mother tongue by those of the new language.
5.
Mastery of structures should be
achieved.
6.
Teaching is mainly through
meaningful situations.
7.
Only one item of language is to
be tested at a time.
Objectives of SOS
1.
The students establish 275
graded structures.
2.
The students attain mastery
over about 3000 root words for active use.
3.
The students corelate grammar
and composition with reading lessons.
4.
The students acquire the four
fundamental language skills- listening, speaking, reading and writing.
5.
The students lays proper
emphasis on the aural-oral practice.
Principle of selection of structures
There are a large number of structures, for
the high school classes. Selection of structures has to be made on the criteria
of (i) usefulness, (ii) productivity, (iii) simplicity, (iv) teachability, and
(v) frequency. Teaching procedures include (i) oral teaching, and (ii)
situational teaching. Situational teaching techniques involves (i) use of real
situations and objects, (ii) gestures and other actions, (iii) use of models,
charts and pictures, (iv) verbal situations, (v) substitution tables, (vi)
dialogues, (vii) repetition drills, (viii) Question- Answer drills, (ix)
completion drills and (x) grammar games.
Advantages
1.
The students get clear
knowledge of the structures.
2.
They learn to use the
structures before they write them.
3.
Attaining mastery over 275
structures and 3000 words the students will be able to use the language
effectively.
4.
Along with acquiring mastery
over sentence patterns and words the students inductively acquire knowledge of
grammar and usage.
5.
By the use of every day English
the students are motivated to learn language.
6.
All the language skills are
given importance, but speech is given priority.
7.
The students remain active
through out the class.
8.
The students acquire fluency in
speech.
9.
The students became creative
learners.
10. Meaningful situations help clear understanding.
11. What is learnt can be retained for long.
12. Command over English is developed.
13. Good pronunciation is acquired.
14. Language learning become a habit.
15. All students are equally benefited.
Disadvantages
1.
The actual problems of teaching
language are not dealt within this approach. Knowledge is limited mostly to
structures and words.
2.
It does not guide the teacher
how to teach the structures and words.
3.
It does not prescribe the
materials for written compositions.
4.
Grading of structures is easy
in theory, but in practice it is not so easy.
5.
Too much drilling and practice
of structures and words makes the class inattentive and dull.
6.
In higher classes, this
approach is not suitable for teaching poetry and fanciful texts.
7.
Really competent teachers are
required, but they are really available.
8.
If a structurally graded
syllabus is not available, the approach will not be effective.
9.
Now Communicative English is
gaining importance, to Structural approach is becoming less popular.
The structural approach has three phases
(i) the presentation phase, (ii) the process phase, and (iii) the production
phase. Continous and comprehensive evaluation should be diffused with the
phases.
Communicative Approach
The shift of importance from form to
meaning, from a rigid simple method to an eclectic one, and from teacher
centredness to student centredness, all converged in the communicative
approach. This approach naturally became
the meeting place for notional and functional designs of teaching English. The
aim of communicative approach is communicative competence as Hymes calls it.
Communicative ability is the abilty to apply the grammatical rules a of
language in order to form grammatically correct sentences with knowledge of
when and where to use these sentences appropriately. Language acquisition
replaces language learning in the communicative approach, because the former is
more realistic and natural.
Principles of Communicative approach
1.
It stresses use of language for
a purpose accurately and appropriately.
2.
Language learning means
acquiring proficiency in communication.
3.
The prime focus is the learner;
the teacher is only a facilitator.
4.
Trial and error method can be
followed.
5.
The communication syllabus is
based on authentic materials.
6.
Pair work and group work should
be encouraged.
7.
The tasks are meaningful. The
learner can immediately judge the success of the tasks.
8.
Emphasis the fuctions of
language rather than rules.
9.
Integrated test tasks are
employed.
10. Contextualisation leads to communication.
11. In the early stage fluency is emphasised, accuracy is to follow in a
later stage.
Merits of Communicative approach
1.
Learning will be a self generating
exercise.
2.
Working in pairs or groups,
confidence is increased.
3.
As there is no inhibition by
grammatical rules or structures, students are free to speak.
4.
Fluency, appropriateness and
accuracy are acquired.
5.
Co-operation in language
acquisition is gained.
Demerits of Communicative approach
1.
Communicative competence cannot
be realized in overcrowded classes.
2.
An average teacher cannot
succeed to help students in attaining communicative competency.
3.
Students may not take
initiative to speak in English.
4.
Due to over enthusiasm, it is
likely that other approaches and methods are neglected.
5.
Detailed syllabuses and text
books are yet to be designed.
6.
Selection and grading of
language items are not favoured in communicative approach.
Community Language Learning (CLL)
A method more concerned about good human
relationship than with techniques and stratergies of teaching, was evolved by
Charles A Curran, a professor of Psychology. It was known as Community Language
Learning and was based on Counselling Learning Methodology. Hence it is
humanistic approach to language learning. Through good relationship between the
teacher and the taught anxieties are removed and a cordial atmosphere is
created. Learner initiative is encouraged.
The CLL lays emphasis on hard task oriented
activity, in which each one is keen to commit to other's welfare. The five stages in the CLL are:
1.
The Embryonic stage- with total
dependence on teacher.
2.
The Self Assertion stage- when
the student takes a little freedom in learning language.
3.
The Birth stage- when the
student speaks independently, though not perfectly.
4.
The Reversal stage- when the
student is secure enough to take correction.
5.
The Independent stage- the
student works on his own with little encouragement from the teacher.
The principles of CLL
1.
Student should feel secure,
i.e; free from anxieties for effective learning.
2.
The teacher or counsellor stays
out of the learning circle.
3.
The teacher neither agrees nor
disagrees with learner's performance.
4.
To make the learner more secure
in understanding the teacher uses mother tongue when necessary.
5.
The fear of a new learning item
is removed by fostering community feeling.
6.
A tape recorder should be in
use.
7.
Gradually the focus from
grammar and phonetics should be shifted to actual sharing of ideas, beliefs,
opinions, needs and desires.
8.
A sense of belonging to each
other between the teacher and the student is developed.
Procedure
The students sit in a circle, the teacher
sits outside. A tape recorder is placed at the centre. The teacher starts a conversation
with usual phatic ways. The teacher helps the students if required. The tape recorder is operated by them. They speak
and record. On playing back, the students listen to their own speech and
understand the qualities and defects. The teacher marks the errors.
Suggestopaedia
It was developed by Georgi Lazamov, a
Bulgarian, who was a psychologist. It is known as suggestology also. Lazamov
identified the fear, anxiety and other negetive emotions inhibit learning
process, especially adult learning. The adults are more concerned about
unfamiliar things and making mistakes than children. So they are to be brought
to the emotional state of children, for learning, and such a transformation is
called infantilization. They are brought to a comfortable and relaxed
atmosphere before learning is to start with, through friendly instruction and
non-verbal communication. They are made to understand that learning is a
pleasure.
Music, smooth presentation of content and
close interaction between the teacher and the student will be conductive to
make such a good atmosphere. Melting away fears and anxieties of the students,
learning will be very effective, and the students will develop hightened
memory. Lazamov claims that suggestopaedia is effective outside classroom study
also and he believes that both the gifted and the average will learn better by
way of suggestopaedia. Suggestopeadia is the pedagogic application of
suggestions to create pleasant willingness of the students to study.
Main principles
1.
It is helpful to get access to
the hidden powers of the mind.
2.
Students will use their hidden
potentials if they are relaxed.
3.
It requires harmonious blending
of the conscious to the unconscious.
4.
Sufficient listening of
students should be ensured.
5.
Active participation of
students helps learn the new material easier.
6.
The functional aspects of
language are emphasised.
7.
Some relaxation exercises will
contribute to active participation.
8.
Games, music, role play, etc
might be introduced to make the students child-like.
Procedure
1.
The students listen to music
for relaxation.
2.
Some relaxation exercises are
given.
3.
Students are given role plays
in which they are delegates attending a seminar, or clients consulting a
doctor.
4.
Some introductory work is done
by the teacher through mimes or rhymes.
5.
Start dialogues.
6.
Teacher's reading is
accompanied by a soft background music especially classical.
7.
The students follow the
dialogue.
8.
In the next class questions are
asked- translation is allowed.
9.
Some games are played like,
throwing a ball and catching.
10. Creative language work is given.
REFERENCE
English Language Education by Dr. K Sivarajan, T.V Ramakrishnan, and K Mridula.
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