LINGUISTICS
Linguistics is the
scientific study of language. Linguistics analyzes human language as a system
for relating sounds or signs in signed languages and meaning. Language learning
or linguistics involves the process of listening, speaking, reading and
writing. These processes involve both linguistic and psychological aspects and
it has generated both linguistic and psycho linguistic principle. It leads us to
understand that all language learning is based on certain well defined
principles.
LINGUISTIC
PRINCIPLES
The modern approach to
all language learning and teaching is the scientific one and is based on sound
linguistic principles. The principles discussed below in no way claim finality:
they are subject to change in the light of new facts exposed by linguists and
language users. These principles are general principles and are applicable to
English language.
Give
Priority to Sounds: The sounds of English should receive
priority. Sounds should be given their due place in the scheme of teaching.
Sounds should not be presented in isolation. They should appear in proper
expressions and sentences spoken with the intonation and rhythm which would be
used by a native speaker.
Present
Language in Basic Sentence Patterns: Present, and have the
students memorize, basic sentence patterns used in day to day conversation.
From small utterances the students can easily pass on to longer sentences. In
case of learning mother-tongue, the student’s memory span can retain much
longer sentences than those of a foreign language. The facility thus gained in
a foreign language enables the learners expand the grasp of the language
material in respect of sounds and vocabulary items.
Language
Patterns as Habits: Real language ability is at the habit
level. It does not just mean knowing about the language. Make language patterns
as habit through intensive pattern practice in variety of situations. The
students must be taught to use language patterns and sentence constructions
with appropriate vocabulary at normal speed for communication. In fact the
habitual use of the most frequently used patterns and items of language, should
take precedence over the mere accumulation of words.
Imitation:
Imitation is an important principle of language learning. No learner by himself
ever invented language. Good speech is the result of imitating good models. The
model should be intelligible. Imitation followed by intensive practice helps in
the mastery of the language system.
Controlled
Vocabulary: Vocabulary should be kept under control.
Vocabulary should be taught and practiced only in the context of real
situations. This way, meaning will be clarified and reinforced.
Graded
Patterns: To teach a language is to impart a new system of
complex habits, and habits are acquired slowly. So, language patterns should be
taught gradually, in cumulative graded steps. This means, the teacher should go
on adding each new element or pattern to previous ones. New patterns of
language should be introduced and practiced with vocabulary that students
already know.
Selection
and Gradation: Selection of the language material to
be taught is the first requisite of good teaching. Selection should be done in
respect of grammatical items and vocabulary and structures.
Selection of language items should involve
1) frequency - how often a certain item or word is
used.
2) range - in what different contexts a word or an
item can be used.
3) coverage - how many different meanings a word or
an item can convey.
4) availability - how far an item is convenient to
teach.
5) learnability - how far an item is easy to learn.
6) teachability
- how far and item is easy to teach - in the social context.
Gradation of the language material means placing the
language items in an order. Grading involves grouping and sequence. Grouping
concerns
Ø the
system of language
Ø Its
structures. Grouping the system of language means what sounds, words, phrases
and meanings are to be taught.
Thus we have:
(i) Phonetic grouping, i.e. grouping according to
sounds. For example, words having the same sound are placed in the one group
as, cat, bat, mat, pat, fat, sat; it, bit, fit, hit, kit, it, etc.
(ii) Lexical grouping, i.e., grouping according to
lexical situations. Example: school, teacher, headmaster, peon, class-room,
library. All these words are grouped around ‘school’.
(iii) Grammatical grouping, i.e., grouping according
to similar patterns as, my book/ his book, (pattern grouping): in the room, in
the corner/ in the class/in the garden, etc. (phrase grouping)
(iv) Semantic grouping, i.e., grouping according to
meaning. Example: school, college, university; bicycle, rickshaw, car, tonga,
train, aeroplane, etc.
(v) Structure grouping, i.e., grouping in the
structures means how the selected items fit one into the other-the sounds into
the words, the words into phrases, the phrases into the clauses and sentences,
and the sentences into the context.
Sequence means what comes after what. Sequence
should be there in the arrangement of sounds (phonetic sequence), phrases
(grammatical sequence) words (lexical sequence) and in meaning (semantic
sequence). Sequence of structures implies direction, expansion, variation and
length of the structures.
The
Oral Way: Experts believe that the oral way is the surest way
to language learning. Learning to speak a language is always the shortest road
to learning to read and write it and we should refrain from reading and writing
any given material until we have learnt to use its spoken form.
Priorities
of Language Skills: Listening (with understanding),
speaking, reading and writing are the four fundamental skills. Listening and
speaking are primary skills, while reading and writing are secondary skills.
Reading and writing are reinforcement skills. They reinforce what has been
learnt through understanding and speaking. In fact, understanding and speaking
speed up the reading process. Writing should be introduced after reading.
Multiple
Line of Approach: The term multiple line implies that one
is to proceed simultaneously from many different points towards the one and the
same end. We should reject nothing except the useless material and should
select judiciously and without prejudice all that is likely to help in our work.
In teaching a language, it implies attacking the problem from all fronts. The
teacher can have a number of language activities connected with the topic such
as oral drill, reading, sentence writing, composition, grammar, translation,
language exercises etc.
Language
Habit through Language Using: A language is best
learnt through use in different contexts and situations. Language learning
means plunging headlong into a series of completely different experiences. It
means exposing oneself to situations where the use of language is required.
Another expert expresses a similar opinion by saying: “Learning a language
means forming new habits through intensive practice in tearing and speaking.
The emphasis should always be on language in actual use”.
Spiral
Approach: The ‘spiral’ approach to language learning should
be followed. Previously taught vocabulary and structures should be reintroduced
in subsequent units whenever logical or possible. This is spiral approach.
Use
Mother-tongue sparingly: The mother-tongue should be
sparingly and judiciously used during teaching English. Of course, at the early
stage, some explanations will have to be given in pupil’s mother tongue. It is
important that students do not use their mother-tongue in the classroom.
PSYCHOLINGUISTICS
Psycholinguistics draws
on ideas and knowledge from a number of associated areas, such as phonetics,
semantics and pure linguistics. There is a constant exchange of information
between psycholinguists and those working in neurolinguistics, who study how
language is represented in the brain. It will not be out of place to list down
certain principles which have been derived from the science of psychology.
PRINCIPLE
OF PSYCHOLINGUISTICS
Motivation:
Motivation is an important factor in language learning, particularly in
learning a second language. It creates interest as well as the need to learn
the language in hand. If the need for the language we use is felt, it is learnt
easily. Pupils’ interest can be aroused in a number of ways and language
learning can be made increasingly interesting and attractive. It can be done
with the help of pictures, charts, models, flash cards, black board sketches
and similar other visual devices. The use of tape-recorder can be most
effective in the teaching of pronunciation. The aim is to have the students
maximally exposed to the target language in variety of contexts and situations,
not in isolation. The teacher should prompt connections, feedback and correct
errors, if any. The rule is teach, test, re-teach, retest. The teacher should
make continual and significant use of language material in class-room
situations. Palmer suggests the following six factors which lead to motivate
and create interest among children:
(i) The limitation
of bewilderment, that is, minimum of confusion;
(ii) The
sense of progress achieved;
(iii) Competitions;
(iv) Game-like exercises;
(v) The right
relation between teacher and student; and
(vi) Variety.
Immediate
Correction: Do make corrections. Corrections make
all the difference. They help in improving pupils’ responses. But remember,
when corrections are made, they should be made immediately. Moreover, the
corrections should be made in such a way as will bring about learning and not
frustration or discouragement.
Reinforcement:
Immediate reinforcement is an important principle. It has been experimentally
proved that reinforcement of correct responses helps in better learning. The
student should be told his response is correct immediately after it is given by
him.
Frequent
Review: An important
psychological principle is the principle of frequent review. Frequent review
and re-entry of the same material is necessary for retention. During the
process of reviewing, variations in material should be essentially be
introduced and practiced.
Correct
Responses: It is an
important psychological principle that classroom activities should strengthen
the language skills. The techniques used by the teacher of English should
encourage the maximum rate of correct responses. This will give children the
feeling of success, achievement and assured progress.
Practice
in Everyday Situations: A language is best learnt when its
need is felt in everyday situations. So, English should be practiced in everyday
situations with which children can easily identify.
In short, the children, their environment and their
experiences, should be the starting point. Let them recall (and, they should be
helped, if they fail) something familiar which is related to or contrasts with
a new language item to be learnt.
REFERENCE
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics
http://www.tolerance.org/supplement/five-standards-effective-pedagogy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psycholinguistics
Psycholinguistics by Michael Garman
No comments:
Post a Comment